ECCLESIASTES
Introduction
The theology of Ecclesiastes is more difficult to synthesize than that of any other OT wisdom book, since the interpretation of the book as a whole and of many of its individual verses is highly disputed. Qoheleth (Heb. = one who assembles others in order to address them), as its speaker or author is usually designated, has been described contrarily both as a ‘preacher of joy’ (so R. N. Whybray, similarly M. A. Klopfenstein) and as a rationalist, agnostic, sceptic, pessimist and fatalist (so R. B. Y. Scott, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes [Garden City, 1965], p. 192), who questions the benefits of wisdom and the meaningfulness of life. Divergent, seemingly contradictory, voices discerned within the book should be attributed to the author’s intellectual and spiritual wrestling with the jarring realities of everyday life rather than to the work of a pious editor. S. Holm-Nielsen has shown that early Christian interpretation of the book was unduly influenced by the early translations, for its key words and phrases have more negative connotations in Greek and Latin than they have in Hebrew. Regardless of how one decides questions of authorship (Solomon or a pseudonymous author who views life through Solomonic eyes) and date of composition, Ecclesiastes can be understood as a life-affirming book which challenges its readers to joyful celebration and vigorous effort, despite the brevity, uncertainty, mysteries and injustices of life.
Purpose and Structure
Ecclesiastes 12:9–14 offers the reader a hermeneutical guide to the book, summarizing the author’s approach and procedure (vv. 9–10), the effect of wisdom sayings (vv. 11–12), and his basic message (vv. 13–14). Qoheleth’s words are ordered and reliable; they are authoritative (‘given by one Shepherd’, niv) even though based upon his own wisdom and experience; and they encourage reverence towards and obedience to God in the light of coming judgment. The author frames his discourse with his basic thesis: everything is utterly ‘temporary’ (Heb. he?el, 1:2; 12:8, a keyword occurring 38 times in Eccles.; see D. C. Fredericks, who argues that the word’s basic meaning is ‘transient’ rather than ‘vain’ [see vanity] or ‘senseless’). He sets out to analyse and assess the activities of life ‘under the sun’ (‘sun’ occurs 33 times in Eccles.) in order to discover what has lasting value (‘profit’, Heb. yi?rôn, 15 times in Eccles.) in such a world (1:3–11, especially v. 3). He considers human achievements and wisdom (1:12–2:26), time and eternity (3:1–22), social interactions (4:1–16), and wealth (5:10–6:9, following a brief warning against wrong attitudes towards God and government in 5:1–9; see Poor, poverty). As a result of his investigation, he comes to understand: that ‘bad’ days can bring about good (6:10–7:14); that ‘righteousness’ and wisdom can offer only limited protection in this world (7:15–29); that one must submit to the government despite its injustice (8:1–17); that, in the light of death, one must fully use one’s opportunities (9:1–12); and that one should embrace wisdom and avoid folly (9:13–10:20). This leads to his final charge to be bold (11:1–6), joyful (11:7–10) and reverent (12:1–7) while there is still time.
Major Themes
On the basis of repeated words and questions within the book, a number of interrelated themes can be identified.
Creation and fall
Several leading OT theologians have emphasized that wisdom theology is best characterized as ‘creation theology’. God is explicitly called ‘Creator’ in 12:1 but his creative work is emphasized throughout the book; he has formed humans out of the dust of the ground, and has imparted ‘spirit’ (or breath, Heb. rûa?) to them (12:7; 3:20–21), which returns to him at death. Everything has been made ‘beautiful in its time’ (3:11). Humans, too, were created ‘upright’ (Heb. y?š?r) but now seek out ‘many schemes’ (7:29); now there is no righteous person on earth ‘who does [only] what is right and never sins’ (7:20). In the fallen world, work has become ‘toil’ or ‘trouble’ (??mal, 33 times in Eccles., cf. especially 1:13) and produces only temporary (Heb. he?el) results.
God as the giver of good gifts and as sovereign judge
Though some commentators have described the God of Ecclesiastes as distant, unknowable or even despotic, there is no compelling basis for distinguishing the ‘god of the sages’ from the covenant God of Israel, though the covenant name for God (Yahweh or Lord), never occurs in the book (so S. de Jong, in VT 47, pp. 154–167). The activity most frequently ascribed to God in Ecclesiastes is ‘giving’ (Heb. n??an, used 13 times of God); he is the giver of everything, both toil (1:13; 2:26; 3:10) and enjoyment in life (2:24, 26; 3:13; 5:18), wisdom and knowledge (2:26; cf. 12:11), wealth (5:19; 6:2), honour (6:2) and the very days of one’s life (5:18; 8:15; 9:9). God is sovereign (6:10; 9:1) and his work is incomprehensible (3:11; 7:14; 8:17; 11:5). Nothing can be added to his work (3:14), and what he has ‘made crooked’, none can straighten (7:13; cf. 1:15). Both the pleasant and the unpleasant days come from him (7:14). Sooner or later, every person will encounter him as judge (3:15, 17; 5:6; 8:5–6; 7:16–17; 11:9; 12:14). Ecclesiastes 5:2b provides a succinct and powerful summary of this theme: ‘God is in heaven and you are on earth, so let your words be few.’ Qoheleth, though not questioning the existence of divine justice, is troubled by its timing (3:10–11; cf. 8:6–8). Observed exceptions to the principle of justice (*e.g. 7:15) do not weaken his conviction that justice will ultimately be done (8:11–12; 11:9; 12:13–14; cf. R. Lux). Indeed, it is Qoheleth’s conviction that God is good and just, though his ways are inscrutable, that enables him to find meaning and joy in this often brutal and disappointing world (2:24–26; 5:18–20).
Human responsibilities
Though God’s work is unfathomable, he has placed ‘eternity’ (‘ôl?m) within the human heart (3:11) and he and his will are knowable. The appropriate human response is twofold. First, people are to fear God, not recoiling in terror (as some have suggested) but revering him. His sovereign work and authority command respect (3:14; 5:7), and fear of God elicits his favour (8:12–13). Secondly, people are to obey his commandments (12:13) and avoid evil (7:18, 26).
The reverent person is cautious in approaching and addressing God, not making empty promises (5:1–2, 4), and is obedient to the ruler (8:2). Ecclesiastes refers to the person who is properly related to God as ‘righteous’ (3:17; 7:15–16, 20; 8:14; 9:1–2), and (employing a more easily misinterpreted expression) as ‘one who pleases him’ (literally: ‘one who is good before him’, 2:26; 7:26; 8:12–13; 9:2), as distinct from the ‘sinner’.
The call to reverence is balanced, however, by Qoheleth’s dominant call to joy (2:24–25; 3:12–13; 5:19–20; 8:15; 9:7–8; 11:8–10), which recurs like a refrain; initially it is cast in the form of an assertion, but later in that of a command. Ecclesiastes 9:7–9 emphasizes that finding enjoyment in one’s food, drink and partner is not simply a sedative against the disappointments of life, but rather expresses an attitude that has divine approval (*cf. also 5:20). One is to enjoy one’s work (3:22; 5:18–19), be diligent in it (9:10; 11:1–6) and do good (3:12). Without these twin characteristics (reverence for God and joy in everyday experiences), life is reduced to futility (*i.e. chasing the wind: 1:14, 17; 2:11, 17, 26; 4:4, 6, 16; 5:16; 6:9); joy is empty (2:1–2; 7:3) and there is no rest (2:23; 4:6; 5:12; 8:16), satisfaction (4:8; 5:10; 6:3, 7, 9) or meaning in life (2:17–23; 4:8); instead, there is envy (4:4), hatred (2:17–18) and despair (2:20; 5:17; 9:3).
There are, however, significant obstacles to a joyful life, above all, the ephemeral nature of all human endeavours (as expressed by Heb. he?el). Death is the unavoidable equalizer and terminator of human existence (2:16; 3:2; 5:15–16; 6:3, 6; 7:2, 15; 9:5–6, 10), against which none can prevail (8:8; 9:12). Since animals and humans, righteous and wicked, share one fate (2:14, 16; 3:19–20; 6:6; 9:2–3), and it even appears at times that death is preferable to life (4:2–3; 6:3–5; 7:1), Ecclesiastes affirms that ultimately righteousness will be rewarded (3:17, 21; 8:12–13; 12:14). Furthermore, the wickedness of others so imperils the life of the righteous (3:16; 4:1; 5:8; 7:7; 8:11; 9:2) that, at least temporarily, the wicked seem to have the upper hand; all that people can do is enjoy those gifts of creation that are available (8:14–15). Uncertainty regarding the future (3:22; 6:12; 7:14; 8:7; 9:1, 12; 10:14), success (11:1–6) and the work of God (3:11; 7:24; 8:17) can lead to debilitating confusion and doubt, even despair, and one can expect repeatedly to be confronted by that which is impossible or unattainable, no matter how wise or righteous one may be (1:15 [cf. 7:13]; 3:14; 7:24; 8:8).
Living ‘gainfully’
Qoheleth affirms repeatedly that despite these difficulties, gain (Heb. yi?rôn, advantage, cf. 1:3; 3:9) can be had by following his counsel. Apart from joy, there are a number of acquisitions which can assist one in dealing with the challenges and uncertainties of life. Wisdom is portrayed in Ecclesiastes as a divine gift (2:26), though also as something acquired gradually (1:16), and as beneficial (2:13; 7:11–12) if esteemed and employed at the right moment (4:13–14; 9:13–16; 10:10–11). Wisdom is both the means (1:13; 2:3, 9; 7:23) and the object (2:12; 7:25) of Qoheleth’s investigation. It can enhance and preserve life in a variety of ways (2:19, 21; 8:1, 5; 12:9, 11), despite its limitations (it causes mental anguish, 1:18; it is soon forgotten, 2:16; it is easily undermined, 7:7; 10:1; it can become pretentious, 7:16; it does not enable one to comprehend everything, 8:16–17; it does not guarantee success, 9:11). Wisdom manifests itself both in actions and in speech (9:17; 10:12); its supreme value is seen most clearly when it is contrasted with folly (2:14; 4:13; 7:4–6; 10:2–3).
Ecclesiastes also acknowledges the (lesser) value of wealth (5:19–20; 7:12; 10:19) with contentment (4:6, 8), strength (9:16, 18; 10:10) and government (5:9; 10:17), despite its frequent abuse of power (4:13; 8:9; 10:4). Like Proverbs, Ecclesiastes emphasizes the value of discerning the proper action to take at a particular moment (3:1, 11; 8:5–6; 10:10–11, 17) while recognizing that divine timing and ‘chance’ lie outside one’s control (3:17; 9:11–12). Even ‘bad’ days can be good for deepening one’s wisdom and understanding, for both pleasant and unpleasant days are under God’s control (7:1–14). In the midst of the difficulties and confusion of life, Qoheleth counsels individuals to accept their lot (Heb. ?eleq), not out of resignation but as an affirmation that a life lived in wisdom before God ‘under the sun’ can be meaningful and enjoyable (2:10; 3:22; 5:18–19; 9:9), especially so in the light of the brevity of life (9:3–6, 10). Though interpreters dispute whether Qoheleth’s repeated references to ‘afterwards’ (Heb. a?arê, 2:12, 18; 6:12; 7:14; 9:3; 10:14; 12:7) are eschatological or merely chronological, the book affirms the existence of an eternal dimension (3:11) and a future (final?) judgment (3:17; 8:12–13; 11:9; 12:14), possibly hinting at an ultimate reunion with God (3:21; 12:7).
Canonical Relationships
Although Ecclesiastes has been regarded as a unique book within the canon, and even as heretical, its major themes develop and are developed by the teaching of other biblical books. Since it is an OT wisdom book, Ecclesiastes’ closest conceptual links are to Proverbs. Its emphasis upon the limitations of wisdom for explaining and helping one avoid suffering and injustice parallels one of Job’s central themes. Though it clearly enjoins obedience to the Torah (12:13–14), even explicitly quoting Deuteronomy 23:21–23 in 5:4–6, its primary theological roots are to be found in the Genesis creation account. D. M. Clemens claims that the book is ‘best understood as an arresting but thoroughly orthodox exposition of Genesis 1–3’, (*Themelios 19, p. 5; cf. also H. W. Hertzberg, Der Prediger [Gütersloh, 1963], p. 230). Genesis 3 thus forms the textual backdrop for Qoheleth’s assessment of work as toil (??mal) and life as ephemeral (he?el, possibly a word-play on ‘Abel’, the name of the first person to die). Ecclesiastes 3:11 may allude to the divine assessment of creation in Gen. 1:31, while 3:20b takes its description of the ‘return to dust’ from Genesis 3:19 (*cf. Eccles. 12:7 and 5:15; compare also Gen. 2:7 with Eccles. 3:19). Qoheleth’s familiar encouragement to ‘eat, drink and enjoy your work’ is not hedonistic, but refers to the fulfilment of the covenant promises of national blessing, as described in 1 Kings 4:20 (referring to the Solomonic era): ‘The people of Judah and Israel were as numerous as the sand on the seashore; they ate, they drank and they were happy.’ Thus Ecclesiastes enjoins the joyful response to God’s good gifts which is required at Israel’s annual and special festivals (Deut. 16:11, 14; 26:11; Neh. 8:10–12). Several psalms concur with Ecclesiastes that acknowledgment of the brevity of life (Pss. 39:4–6; 144:3–4; both psalms use he?el) should lead not to gloomy pessimism but to trusting reliance upon the giver of life (Pss. 39:6–7; 144:1–2). (For further links to OT themes, cf. R. L. Schultz, TynB 48.)
Ecclesiastes is never quoted explicitly in the NT, though Romans 8:20 echoes Ecclesiastes’ he?el theme in claiming that all creation is subject to ‘frustration’ (niv; Gk: mataiot?s, the usual lxx translation of he?el). Though it may discuss personal eschatology and theodicy (see above), Ecclesiastes lacks the ‘new creation’ theme, which is introduced elsewhere in the OT (Is. 65:17–25; cf. Pss. 51:10) and which permeates the NT. While Qoheleth clings to the conviction that justice will ultimately be done (8:12–13), the NT associates the establishment of justice not simply with the future reign of God and his agent (as in the OT prophets) but specifically with the return of Jesus Christ. Verses in the NT which condemn an ‘eat, drink, and be merry’ attitude (Matt. 24:38; Luke 12:19; 1 Cor. 15:32) are not directed against Ecclesiastes’ call to enjoy life; Qoheleth also demands reverence before God. He affirms, as does Paul, not only that God is the supplier of good gifts but also that they are to be enjoyed with contentment (1 Tim. 6:6–8, 17). Ecclesiastes’ discourses on wealth (5:10–6:9) and government (Eccles. 8) are fully consonant with Paul’s later development of these themes in 1 Timothy 6 and Romans 13, respectively. Qoheleth’s charge to enjoy one’s God-given material possessions and opportunities, while accepting one’s lot, which may involve suffering and injustice, but not to seek ultimate meaning in the goods and achievements of this present world, is as pertinent today as when it was first issued.
Bibliography
D. M. Clemens, ‘The law of sin and death: Ecclesiastes and Genesis 1–3’, Them 19, 1994, pp. 5–8; S. de Jong, ‘God in the book of Qohelet: A reappraisal of Qohelet’s place in Old Testament theology’, VT 47, 1997, pp. 154–167; M. A. Eaton, Ecclesiastes, TOTC (Leicester and Downers Grove, 1983); M. V. Fox, Qohelet and his Contradictions (Sheffield, 1989); D. C. Fredericks, Coping with Transience: Ecclesiastes on Brevity in Life (Sheffield, 1993); S. Holm-Nielsen, ‘On the interpretation of Qoheleth in early Christianity’, VT 24, 1974, pp. 168–177; M. A. Klopfenstein, ‘Kohelet und die Freude am Dasein’, ThZ 47, 1991, pp. 97–107; R. Lux, ‘“Denn es ist kein Mensch so gerecht auf Erden, daß er nur Gutes tue …” Recht und Gerechtigkeit aus der Sicht des Predigers Salomo’, ZThK 94, 1997, pp. 263–287; R. E. Murphy, ‘Qoheleth and theology?’ BTB 21, 1991, pp. 30–33; R. L. Schultz, ‘Unity or diversity in Wisdom theology? A canonical and covenantal perspective’, TynB 48, 1997, pp. 271–306; R. N. Whybray, ‘Qoheleth, preacher of joy’, JSOT 23, 1982, pp. 87–98; G. H. Wilson, ‘“The words of the wise”: The intent and significance of Qohelet 12:9–14’, JBL 103, 1984, pp. 175–192.
R. L. Schultz
OT Old Testament
vv. verses
v. verse
VT Vetus Testamentum
TynB Tyndale Bulletin
NT New Testament
Them Themelios
TOTC Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries
ThZ Theologische Zeitschrift
ZThK Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche
BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
